Any study of linkage institutions would be incomplete
without a consideration of the role that mass media plays in the American
political system. Political parties
and interest groups serve as important links between citizens and government,
but an increasingly important component is mass media that provides information,
and also shapes, fosters, or censures it. Mass
media has become such an integral part of the political system that it is
sometimes called ãthe fourth branchä of government, and it both
reflects and influences public opinion. The
media link public opinion and the government, and the influence of the mass
media on politics is enormous.
THE
FUNCTIONS AND STRUCTURE OF THE MEDIA
Mass media may be broken down into three major
components: print media, electronic media, and the internet. Print media has played a role in American politics almost
from the beginning, when the early political parties published their own, very
partisan newspapers. Electronic
media became a force during the 20th century, first with the
invention of radio, and later the invention and widespread access to television.
The internet first came to be used in the early 1970s by the government,
and developed into a major medium of communication by the centuryâs end.
FUNCTIONS OF THE MEDIA
The mass media perform a number of functions in American
society, and all have an impact on the political system.
á
Entertainment ö Radio and television both emphasize
entertainment, with prime-time ratings for television often making or breaking
the overall success of the networks and individual stations.
Particularly in recent years politics has been a topic for entertainment,
with numerous movies focused on the president as the star of fictional political
sagas. A popular TV series, The
West Wing, began as an obvious take-off on the real White House Office of
President Bill Clinton, but it survived the transition to the very different
style and personnel of George W. Bushâs staff.
Popular late-night shows, such as Saturday Night Live, also
entertain people with their humorous treatment of political figures and events.
This type of entertainment may play an important role in political
socialization, shaping opinions of political institutions and practices at the
same time they are entertaining us.
á
News Reports ö Reporting the news has been a major
function of print media since the early 19th century, and newspapers
and magazines remain an important source for people interested in simply finding
out what is happening in the country and the world outside. Today more people
rely on television than on newspapers and magazines to provide news.
In the early days of television, news was generally reported early every
evening in a fifteen-minute segment before the nightâs entertainment began. Today network news has expanded to thirty and sixty minute
segments, but cable television has made round-the-clock news reporting possible,
with CNN, Fox News, and MSNBC focusing on news stories and commentarie virtually
24 hours a day.
á
Agenda Setting ö One important source of political,
social, and economic power is the ability of the media to draw public attention
to particular issues. Equally
important are the issues that the media doesnât focus on.
For example, the media may promote terrorism as a major issue in American
society by airing the latest tape by Osama bin Laden, but Americans may remain
unconcerned about the AIDS epidemic in Africa because the media is silent about
that issue. The media may promote a
presidentâs agenda by focusing on his proposals, or they may distract from a
presidentâs agenda by focusing on a ãsideshow,ä such as they did with Bill
Clintonâs personal and financial life. Conservative
radio hosts, such as Rush Limbaugh, have developed large audiences that are
influenced not just by the opinions expressed, but are also encouraged to focus
on some issues but not on others.
á
Creation of Political Forums ö Politicians have learned
to use the mass media to make important announcements or to encourage citizens
to focus on their issues. The media
wants to make politics interesting so that viewer ratings remain high, so
politicians often respond by ãmaking newsä that will draw attention from the
media. A presidential candidate may
dress up in hunting gear, or pose in a ãphoto opä with a respected former
president, as John Kerry did in 2004. Members
of Congress may call attention to their causes through filibusters or public
announcements of popular legislation passed.
The individual that has the most direct access to the media is the
president, who may command prime time for important announcements and speeches.
Presidential press conferences usually get extensive coverage, and the
presidentâs daily activities are followed carefully.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE MEDIA
In the past 50 years, the broadcast, or electronic, media
have gradually replaced the print media as the main source of political
information. Today, the internet is
the most rapidly growing type of mass media.
á
Print Media - Most newspapers today are still locally based, although many
of them are part of massive media conglomerates, such as Gannett, Knight, Ridder,
and Newhouse. However, papers such
as The New York Times and The
Washington Post have a national
readership that makes them an important force in policymaking.
Most magazines do not focus on politics, but news magazines, such as Time,
Newsweek, U.S. News and World Report, Nation, and
New Republic, have considerable influence on American government and politics.
á
Electronic Media ö Radio
was first invented in 1903, but made its big debut in politics when a Pittsburgh
station broadcast the 1920 election returns.
President Franklin Roosevelt used radio successfully in his ãfireside
chatsä to the nation. Despite the
advent of television in the mid-20th century, radio remains an
important linkage institution, especially since many Americans spend time in
their cars for work commutes and travel. Conservative
talk shows provide commentary on national politics, and National Public Radio
puts a great deal of focus on political events and personalities.
Televisionâs influence on the American public is tremendous, especially
with the advent of cable television. Americans
not only get information from television, but they also listen to commentaries
and analysis of the news.
á
The Internet ö Internet
technology and access has transformed communications in a very short period of
time, particularly during the late 1990s and early 21st century.
The internet has become a tool for researching almost any topic under the
planet, and also serves as a major entertainment outlet for millions.
People across the globe may instantaneously contact one another by
e-mail, and written letters have almost become a thing of the past.
Today ãblogsä and list serves devote much time to political
topics, and provide an interactive forum for people to express and react to
political opinions. Internet
communications played an integral role in the election campaign of 2004, when
candidates raised unprecedented amounts of money on campaign websites.
In addition, 527s established internet sites that not only raised money,
but spread their influence through interactive ãchats.ä
On election day in 2004, electronic news media pledged to not make public
reports from exit polls until everyone had voted.
However, internet sources
made no such commitment, and strong rumors passed around the websites that
predicted victory for Democratic candidate John Kerry.
The predictions were wrong, and President George W. Bush was reelected,
but the election affirmed the growing political influence of the internet.
GOVERNMENT REGULATION OF THE MEDIA
As a general
rule, print media has much fewer government restrictions than does electronic
media. The First Amendment to the
Constitution has been interpreted to mean that no government, federal or state,
can place ãprior restraintä on the press before stories are
published. Once something is
published, a newspaper or magazine may be sued or prosecuted for libel or
obscenity, but these charges are very difficult to prove. Most journalists value
confidentiality of sources, or the right to keep the sources for their
information private. However, the
Supreme Court has upheld the right of the government to compel reporters to
divulge information as party of a criminal investigation, so the conflict
between reporters and the government is still an issue.
In contrast,
broadcasting is carefully regulated by the government.
No one may operate a radio or television station without a license from
the Federal Communications Commission.
The government must renew licenses, and until recently the FCC used its
power of renewal to influence what the station put on the air.
For example, they might require a network to change their depictions of
racial or ethnic groups, restrict the number of commercials aired, or decrease
the number of shows that emphasize violence.
In recent years a movement to deregulate both television and radio has
taken hold. With the increasing
choice of television and radio shows available to the American public,
supporters of deregulation argue that competition should be allowed to determine
how each station defines and serves community needs.
Now many of the old rules are less vigorously enforced.
Radio broadcasting has been deregulated more than televisions, and in
1996 the Telecommunications Act allowed one radio company to own as many
as eight stations in large markets and as many as it wished nationally.
Despite these
recent trends, the content of radio and television is still regulated in ways
that newspapers and magazines are not. One
example is the equal time rule that requires a station selling time to
one candidate for office to make the same amount of time available to another.
Also in force is the right-of-reply rule that allows a person who
is attacked on a broadcast the right to reply over that same station. A candidate may also reply if a broadcaster endorses an
opponent. For many years a fairness
doctrine was in place, which required broadcasters to give time to opposing
views if they broadcast a program giving one side of a controversial issue.
The FCC abolished the doctrine in 1987, arguing that it inhibited the
free discussion of issues. However,
most broadcasters still follow the rule voluntarily.
THE IMPACT OF MEDIA ON POLITICS
The media
influences the political system in many ways, as reflected in the functions of
the media summarized earlier in this chapter.
Electronic media has been criticized for forcing political figures and
events to conform to ãsound bites,ä or comments compressed into
several-second segments. Although
newspapers and magazines have longer formats, most Americans today are much more
reliant on television and radio for their news. As a result, stories are boiled down to their basics, and
those that donât fit are not covered. The
impact of the internet is yet to be seen, but the interactive nature of the
medium allows the user to spend as much or little time with an issue as he or
she likes.
THE MEDIA AND
POLITICAL CAMPAIGNS
Media influence
is probably most obvious during political campaigns for office, especially
during presidential years. Because
television is the primary news source for Americans, candidates and their
consultants spend much of their time strategizing as to how to use it to their
benefit. Television is widely used
by presidential and senatorial candidates, and increasingly by candidates for
the House of Representatives.
á
Advertising ö Television
advertising is very expensive, and as a result, the cost of campaigns has
skyrocketed. Most campaign ads are
negative, making them even more controversial.
The typical pattern is for one candidate to ãattackä the other, who
in turn ãcounterattacks.ä Even
though most people claim to dislike these ads, political consultants believe
that they work, so it appears as if negative ads have become the norm.
Critics worry that this type of advertising reduces political
participation and encourages citizens to be cynical about politics.
á
News Coverage ö Television
ads cost money, but news coverage ö as long as you can get it ö is free.
So candidates and consultants spend a great deal of time planning ãnews
eventsä that will be covered on the evening news and by cable news shows.
They may also arrange to be invited to appear on news shows to comment on
particular issues or events. As a
result, an invitation to appear on CNNâs Larry
King show can be worth thousands of
dollars in campaign ads. Some
campaign staff specialize in media techniques, such as camera angles, necessary
equipment, timing, and deadlines, so that even if the news coverage is free the
advice is not. An important
position on any campaign staff is that of spin doctor, or one who tries
to influence journalists with interpretations of events that are favorable to a
particular candidate.
á
Presidential Debates
ö The most famous series
of television events in American politics are the presidential debates.
The television precedent was set in 1960, when the Democratic candidate,
John Kennedy, was generally perceived to ãdefeatä the sitting Vice President
Richard Nixon. Challengers generally benefit more than incumbents from the
debates because they are not as well known.
However, the results are often unpredictable, since usually the
differences come down to style. Both
candidates are prepared extensively for the debates, and usually donât make
any serious mistakes. An exception
occurred in 1976 when President Gerald Ford argued that eastern European
countries were not communist. In
2004 President George W. Bush was criticized for inconsistent performances over
the course of the debates, but challenger John Kerry was widely criticized by
the media (and the Republican Party) for bringing up the sexual orientation of
Vice President Cheneyâs daughter. The
debates give the public an opportunity to see both candidates together, and even
though the ability of debates to change votes has been questioned, they are now
a part of political campaigning tradition.
THE MEDIA AND
GOVERNMENT OFFICIALS
The media
impacts all officials in government on local, state, and national levels.
Town newspapers often cover local school board candidates, and town
meetings often appear in full broadcasts on local television stations.
Governors ö particularly those in large states ö often have staff
members that help them with news coverage.
On the national level, members of Congress must share the stage with 534
others. However, party leaders and
committee chairmen often play to media events.
The importance of the presidency is reflected in the existence of the White
House press corps that is assigned full-time to cover the activities of the
president. Once or twice a day they
are briefed by the presidentâs press secretary, who is responsible for
handling the press corps. Because
the reporters are in close proximity to the president, they tend to report
almost every visible action he takes. Presidents,
then, live their lives in public view, a situation that they may use to their
benefit since they have a built-in audience.
However, the need to get a story may lead reporters to emphasize the
trivial and leave a president frustrated by a focus on matters he considers to
be unimportant.
The media do not
make direct policy decisions, but their influence on American government and
politics is tremendous. Whether
they manipulate the policymakers or are manipulated by the politicians is a
matter of some dispute, but their presence is an integral part of American
society. They link the public to
government and often set the public agenda, two very important components of the
political system.
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS AND IDENTIFICATIONS:
agenda setting
ãblogsä
confidentiality of sources
equal time rule
fairness doctrine
Federal Communications Commission
ãfourth branchä
press secretary
prior restraint
right of reply
sound bites
spin doctor
Telecommunications Act of 1996
White House press corps